One of the early rulers of Jerusalem had married into native Armenian Christian nobility and thus Queen Melisende (1131-52) had a strong interest in supporting the indigenous as well as the Latin Church. In so far as this influences popular beliefs, the legacy is real; in so far as it claims to represent historical continuity, it is not. Xev545 9 mo. Live Science is part of Future US Inc, an international media group and leading digital publisher. Irrespective of motives, our tendency is to stereotype the present and the past, and to reject their complexity. As a result, the history of the crusades has become a ubiquitous part of the western cultural background, referenced in flags, art, family histories, athletics teams and even in the brands of companies and organisations that seem entirely unrelated. By 1212, however, the rulers of Iberia managed to pull together to rout the Muslims at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa to seal a major step in the recovery of the peninsula. Their fellow Christians burst into the city and over the next few days the place was put to the sword in an outburst of religious cleansing and a release of tension after years on the march. For instance, they fostered the sharing and creation of new technologies, new forms of art and architecture, as well as the exchange of different ideas and even cuisines. Their plan was to secure the agricultural wealth of the Nile Delta and the revenues of Egypt's mercantile cities," Morton said. With the events of 1204, the schism between the Catholic West and Orthodox East was complete. Underlying both these narrative structures are several key ideas: that violence on behalf of God is spiritually beneficial both for the individual and for the larger group of which they are a part; that divine will is manifest in the world, and thus crusading victory demonstrates righteousness while crusading defeat urges redoubled effort; and that there is a connection between holy violence and the assertion of group identity. (Bibliothque Nationale / Bridgeman Images). See Peter Frankopan. "Perhaps the most significant developments in crusading during this century took place in other regions," Morton said. People of all social ranks (except kings) joined the First Crusade, although an initial rush of ill-disciplined zealots sparked an horrific outbreak of antisemitism, especially in the Rhineland, as they sought to finance their expedition by taking Jewish money and to attack a group perceived as the enemies of Christ in their own lands. Plans to recover the Holy Land had not entirely died out and in a spirit of religious devotion, Christopher Columbus set out the same year hoping to find a route to the Indies that would enable him to reach Jerusalem from the East. "The crusade itself set out to reconquer Edessa, but it never got anywhere near this target and culminated in the unsuccessful siege of Damascus in 1148. Just as important was their role in bringing pilgrims to and from the Holy Land. This, in turn, would save them from the prospect of eternal damnation in the fires of Hell, a fate repeatedly emphasised by the Church as the consequence of a sinful life. Had they oppressed the majority local population (and many Muslims and eastern Christians lived under Frankish rule), there would have been no-one to farm the lands or to tax and their economy would simply have collapsed. See the piece by Richard Cavendish. But these comparisons quickly break down under scrutiny. The First Crusade of 1096 presented a challenge to Seljuk rule of the Holy Land, and led to the capture of Jerusalem. Given the crusaders' need for food and transport, the emperor held the upper hand in this relationship, although this is not to say that he was anything other than cautious in dealing with the new arrivals, particularly in the aftermath of the trouble caused by the Peoples' Crusade and the fact that the main armies included a large Norman Sicilian contingent, a group who had invaded Byzantine lands as recently as 1081. Campaigns in the Baltic advanced further and the holy war in Iberia stepped forwards too. What was the legacy of the Crusades? The Crusades began in November 1095, at the Council of Clermont in France, Nicholas Morton, senior lecturer at Nottingham Trent University, and author of "The Teutonic Knights in the Holy Land, 1190-1291 (opens in new tab)" (Boydell, 2009), told Live Science in an email. While this was no grand plan of Pope Eugenius but rather a reaction to appeals sent to him, it shows the confidence in crusading at this time. Confronted with the message, propagated by both the European and Anglophone extreme right and Islamic jihadist groups, that we live in an age of renewed conflict between Islam and the west, many people may understandably conclude that we have inherited an ancient legacy of holy war. What was the effect of crusading on the people and institutions of western Europe? Acre fell in July 1191, and on September 7 Richard's brilliant victory at Arsf put the Crusaders in possession of Joppa. He added that the "frontiers of war in the Near East were very rarely as clear-cut as simply 'Christian vs Muslim' or 'Muslim vs Christian'.". This expedition had achieved the original intention of the Fourth Crusade by invading Egypt but became bogged down outside the port of Damietta before a poorly executed attempt to march on Cairo collapsed. That said, the particular cultural, political and religious make-up of the region mean that it would be wrong, as in the Holy Land, to characterise relations between religious groups as constant warfare, a situation outlined by Robert Burns and Paul Chevedden. The question assumes contemporary currency of the crusades, from its use in Islamist propaganda, to etiolated intellectual debate on a supposed clash of civilisations, to English soccer fans cheerfully dressing up as crusader warriors. Known as the "Crusader states" or "Outremer" (the medieval French term for "overseas"). One of the most well-known and intriguing stories is that of Athena and Medusa. Peter the Hermit leads pilgrims in a 14th century depiction of the Peoples Crusade. With original insights into the legacy of the First Crusade and the roles of Pope Eugenius III and King Conrad III of Germany, Phillips offers the definitive work on this neglected Crusade that, despite its failed objectives, exerted a profound impact across Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Antioch, Edessa and Tripoli covered the areas that are now Syria, Lebanon and Southeast Turkey, while Jerusalem encompassed modern-day Israel and Palestine. A large Turkish army attacked the troops of Bohemond of Taranto near Dorylaeum. Alongside this came a growing interest in re-evaluating the motives of crusaders, with some of the existing emphases on money being downplayed and the clich of landless younger sons out for adventure being laid to rest. Thus, in the course of the 13th century, crusades were preached against these Christians, although by 1261 Constantinople itself was back in Greek hands. Yes, This Definitely Works. However, they also include descriptions of friendships, alliances, statements of respect and admiration that cross cultural and religious boundaries." Citing historical precedent is often a sign of historical ignorance. "Neither the papacy nor anyone else referred to the earliest Crusades as such. The Crusaders ruled the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which included a large part of . The stalemate was only ended when Bohemond persuaded a local Christian to betray one of the towers and on June 3rd, 1098 the crusaders broke into the city and captured it. In 1307, Pope Clement V issued a Papal Bill ordering all monarchs to arrest the Knights Templar and to seize their properties. Six experts discussed the question for BBC World Histories earlier this year, writing on whether those events, recreated in books, films and firebrand speeches, continue to affect lives and politics in the region and around the globe today. It's a five-mile-long cylindrical hunk of spinning metal . 2023. The modern near east is not a product of medieval wars, yet the shadow of the crusades lies across the rhetoric of polemicists. They ignored the other evidence because they found no use for it. He went on pilgrimage to the River Jordan, attended Easter ceremonies in the Holy Sepulchre and celebrated the acquisition of riches. To regard the Franks as entirely enfeebled would, however, be a serious error. Tom Garner is the Features Editor for History of War magazine and also writes for sister publication All About History. The Crusades slowed the advance of Islamic power; without the Crusading effort, it is difficult to see how western Europe could have escaped conquest by Muslim armies. I would say probably yes. "The problem is that this numbering system is not comprehensive and nor was it used by contemporaries. The Crusades were launched against the Muslims to recapture Jerusalem and the Holy Land as well as against the non-Christian peoples in Europe, Albigenses and Hussites and even against political enemies. (Nonetheless, there have certainly been many vocal critics of the In the former, it regained profile through the romantic literature of writers such as Sir Walter Scott and, as lands in the Middle East fell to the imperialist empires of the age, the French, in particular, chose to draw links with their crusading past. The Middle East is not a place for idealistic pro-democracy crusades, but . Italian sailors and troops helped capture the vital coastal ports (such as Acre, Caesarea and Jaffa), in return for which they were awarded generous trading privileges which, in turn, gave a vital boost to the economy as the Italians transported goods from the Muslim interior (especially spices) back to the West. Susanna A Throop is associate professor of history at Ursinus College, Pennsylvania, and author of The Crusades: An Epitome (Kismet, 2018), This article was first published in issue 16 of BBC World Histories magazine. The construction in 1178 and 1179 of the large castle of Jacob's Ford, only a day's ride from Damascus, was another aggressive gesture that required Saladin to destroy the place. A couple of weeks later, on June 28th, 1098, the crusaders gathered their last few hundred horses together, drew themselves into their now familiar battle lines and charged the Muslim forces. If you use any of the content on this page in your own work, please use the code below to cite this page as the source of the content. The crusaders were marching in separate contingents and this, plus the unfamiliar tactics of swift attacks by mounted horse archers, almost saw them defeated until the arrival of forces under Raymond of Toulouse and Godfrey of Bouillon saved the day. They also wore symbols traditionally associated with pilgrimages such as a pilgrim's scrip (pouch) and staff. So were the crusades really about controlling land? Godefroy de Bouillon, the leader of the First Crusade, is depicted leading the siege of a Saracen town, c.1099. All military orders withdrew to Europe after the fall of the last Crusader state in the Middle East. The word became a shorthand for a cause with moral right, be it in a non-military context, such as a crusade against drink, or in the horrors of the First World War. John France relates the capture of the city in his article from 1997. In the 19th century, the wests increasing hegemony seen in the colonialism, imperialism and trade of that era began to appear to the Islamic world as an attempt to more than compensate for the failures of medieval crusades. When we do, though, the history of the crusades will be written differently. Beginning in the 13th century, various popes launched Crusades against their opponents within Europe. This collection of essays explores the literary legacy of medieval England by examining the writers, editors and exemplars of medieval English texts. The site was too big to surround properly but the crusaders did their best to squeeze the place into submission. The Emperor Charles V invoked the crusading spirit in his defence of Vienna in 1529, although this struggle resembled more of an imperial fight rather than a holy war. By this stage the political complexion of the Middle East was changing. Articles by Jonathan Phillips and Umej Bhatia cover the memory and the legacy of the crusades to bring the story down to modern times. This huge city had been a Roman settlement; to Christians it was significant as the place where saints Peter and Paul had lived and it was one of the five patriarchal seats of the Christian Church. But the recapture of the city, which constituted the chief aim of the Third Crusade, eluded him. The legacy of the Crusades remains potent even in the 21st century, according to Morton. His diplomatic skills (he spoke Arabic), the danger posed by his considerable resources as well as the divisions in the Muslim world in the decades after Saladin's death, enabled him to accomplish this. In return for this they would, in effect, be forgiven those sins they had confessed. Most of the crusade leaders swore oaths to Alexios, promising to hand over to him lands formerly held by the Byzantines in return for supplies, guides and luxury gifts. "They were essentially moments when preachers or enigmatic leaders often from humble backgrounds spontaneously gathered crowds, inciting their followers either to join or to initiate a crusading campaign. In all, eight major Crusade. The Crusades slowed the advance of Islamic power and may have prevented western Europe from falling under Muslim suzerainty. The Reconquista (Reconquest) or Iberian Crusades were military campaigns largely conducted between the 11th and 13th century CE to liberate southern Portuguese and Spanish territories, then known as al-Andalus, from the Muslim Moors who had conquered and held them since the 8th century CE. They were often spiritual undertakings that could be classified as "Popular" movements, Morton wrote. The Crusades greatly stimulated European economy, while the Italian cities of Venice, Genoa and Pisa which took over the transport and supply to the Crusaders as well as the import of luxurious products such as spices, precious and semi-precious stones, ivory and many other products from the Middle East reached their height during the period of the Crusades. Which ancient Egyptian dynasty ruled the longest? Suleiman A Mourad is historian of Islam and professor of religion at Smith College, Massachusetts, and associate fellow at the Nantes Institute for Advanced Study, France. The pope made a proposal: 'Whoever for devotion alone, but not to gain honour or money, goes to Jerusalem to liberate the Church of God can substitute this journey for all penance.' Self-imagined heirs of victims? When the aim of liberating Jerusalem was coupled to lurid (probably exaggerated) stories of the maltreatment of both the Levant's native Christians and western pilgrims, the desire for vengeance, along with the opportunity for spiritual advancement, formed a hugely potent combination. ago. While the Crusades ultimately resulted in defeat for Europeans and a Muslim victory, many argue that they successfully extended the reach of Christianity and Western civilization. They found in the crusades a useful past through which they sought to understand their own world of overseas empires, warring nations and rapid social change. Some of them have. After the First Crusade (1095-1099) was launched by Pope Urban II, the large areas of the Holy Land were occupied by European Crusader States, as well as military orders such as the Knights Templar. Crusading required substantial levels of financial support and this, over time, saw the emergence of national taxes to support such efforts, as well as efforts to raise money from within the Church itself. This period of the history of the Latin East is related in detail by the most important historian of the age, William, Archbishop of Tyre, as Peter Edbury describes. A comprehensive account of a compelling and controversial topic, whose bitter legacy resonates to this day. From the makers of HistoryExtra, try 6 issues of BBC History Magazine or BBC History Revealed for just 9.99 + FREE access to HistoryExtra (including ad the free Podcast) worth 34.99. The legacy of the crusades is, nonetheless, powerful, primarily because of the passions and predilections of 19th- and 20th-century Europeans. Yet, after only four days, fear of relief forces led by Zengi's son, Nur ad-Din, prompted an ignominious retreat. The Crusades also resulted in the first conflicts based on nationality and deepened the breach between the Western Europe and the Byzantine Empire which reached its height with the fall of Constantinople in 1204. Crusaders: did they fight for God or gold? The most infamous episode of the age was the Fourth Crusade (1202-04) which saw another effort to recover Jerusalem end up sacking Constantinople, the greatest Christian city in the world. In the modern era, western nations have often looked back with enthusiasm to the crusades, and crusading language has been used by many politicians and movements to justify their actions. The human urge to intervene on the side of moral good in order to destroy evil still prompts individuals to join great undertakings couched in moral terms, such as the thousands who travelled from Britain in the 1930s to fight against fascism in the Spanish Civil War, or the young people who joined the so-called Islamic State in Syria. The Mongol invaders added another dimension to the struggle as they conquered much of the Muslim world to the East; they had also briefly threatened Eastern Europe with savage incursions in 1240-41 (which also prompted a crusade appeal). Western proclamation of crusading precedents informed the counter-ideologies of indigenous regional resistance to foreign intervention. Bohemond wanted to stay and consolidate his hold on Antioch, arguing that since Alexios had not fulfilled his side of the bargain then his oath to the Greeks was void and the conquest remained his. Urban was responsible for the spiritual well-being of his flock and the crusade presented an opportunity for the sinful knights of western Europe to cease their endless in-fighting and exploitation of the weak (lay people and churchmen alike) and to make good their violent lives. At least two basic narrative structures of crusading remain in use. The writings of Caffaro of Genoa, a rare secular source from this period, show little difficulty in assimilating these motives. "The era of the Crusades to the Holy Land is best known today as one of the most conflictual periods in the history of relations between Western Christianity and Islam," he said. But history is often shaped by what we choose to remember, why and how. During the First Crusade, which lasted from 1095 to 1099, European Christian armies defeated Jerusalem and established the Crusader States. Why is endometriosis so hard to diagnose? Some of the new ideas and products brought back from the crusades include: The Crusades also proved to be the perfect opportunity to establish new trade routes, and the list above provides a strong indication of how western Europe benefited from the travels of the crusaders - culturally and financially. The word crusade, then, continues to be used to denote a cause which people believe in strongly such as for human rights or against illegal practices. From Le Roman de Godefroi de Bouillon, France, 1337. Some, of course, chose to remain in the Levant, resolved to guard Christ's patrimony and to set up lordships and holdings for themselves. The Teutonic Knights were forced to leave the Holy Land as well. By the end of the 18th century the Crusades had all but ended, leaving Europe and the Near East forever changed. The lack of jihad spirit was also evident, as lamented by as-Sulami, a Damascene preacher whose urging of the ruling classes to pull themselves together and fulfil their religious duty was largely ignored until the time of Nur ad-Din (1146-74) and Saladin onwards. "Two other really big Crusades, the Fifth and the Seventh, attempted to conquer Egypt prior to advancing against Jerusalem. At the time, writers sometimes described crusaders as 'crucesignati' meaning 'persons marked by the sign of the cross' but at other times, they described them using other terms such as 'pilgrim'. Crusading survived in the memory and the imagination of the peoples of western Europe and the Middle East. Understanding of the scope of the Crusades widened with a new recognition that crusading extended far beyond the original 11th-century expeditions to the Holy Land, both in terms of chronology and scope. Frederick's attempts to make good this were frustrated by genuine ill health but by this time the papacy had lost patience with him. The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims started primarily to secure control of holy sites considered sacred by both groups. The Hospitallers of Malta had also survived a huge Turkish siege in 1480 and their existence served as a long-lasting relic of the original crusading conflict until Napoleon Bonaparte extinguished their rule of the island in 1798. The history of the crusades is told invariably as a savage, religiously inspired clash of civilisations between medieval European Christians and oriental Muslims. The prejudices of the script jump out at modern viewers: Christians are good, Moslems are infidels to be . Given that the First Crusade was, self-evidently, a novel event, this was understandable. Then, in conjunction with the Latin settlers, the crusaders laid siege to the most important Muslim city in Syria, Damascus. Octopuses torture and eat themselves after mating. Contact with different nationalities, cultures and religions resulted in the interchange of ideas and customs as well as in progress of science, techniques, medicine, literature, architecture, invention and geography. PLUS access to the BBC History Magazine Collectors Edition catalogue worth over 128* as part of your free access to HistoryExtra, Save 70% on the shop price when you subscribe today - Get 13 issues for just $49.99 + FREE access to HistoryExtra.com. How did people record the Crusades and, finally, what is their legacy? Conversely, the Crusades did not necessarily conclude in the late 13th century. Numerous histories, plus oral storytelling, often in the form of Chansons de geste, popular within the early flowerings of the chivalric age, celebrated the First Crusade. The Franks were always short on manpower but were a dynamic group who developed innovative institutions, such as the Military Orders, to survive. The Crusades were primarily a military event, as hundreds of thousands of combatants clashed in the various battles that comprised the Crusading era. The cultural legacy of the crusades is not only visible in the polemics of violent extremists; it surrounds us. 'Short-term memory illusions' can warp human recollections just seconds after events, study suggests. "It was a response to the fall of the city of Edessa (the capital of the County of Edessa) in 1144 to the Turkish ruler Zangi," Morton wrote. ", The Crusades were similarly complex during the Middle Ages. According to historian Jacques Le Goff, very little was actually gained from the Crusades. More recently, certain American movements for the abolition of slavery, the war against Mormon polygamy, the prohibition of alcohol, and the civil rights movement headed by Martin Luther King have been cited as examples of modern crusades. In December 1144 Zengi, the Muslim ruler of Aleppo and Mosul, captured Edessa to mark the first major territorial setback for the Franks of the Near East. "They scarcely ever reached their intended targets. Heres how it works. "By the end of the Crusade, Jerusalem remained under Saladins control, but the crusaders managed to recapture some of the kingdom of Jerusalem's coastal cities," Morton said. The Council of Clermont in 1085 is considered to have launched the Crusades, when Pope Urban II gave a speech calling for the reconquest of the Holy Land. The Crusades Fall of Constantinople Legacy of the Byzantine Empire Sources The Byzantine Empire was a vast and powerful civilization with origins that can be traced to 330 A.D., when the. In the aftermath of victory many of the exhausted Christians succumbed to disease, including Adhmar of Le Puy, the papal legate and spiritual leader of the campaign. In the 17th century, Louis Maimbourgs History of the Crusades (1675) was used as propaganda for the persecution of Protestants in France during the reign of Louis XIV. Saladin is remembered as a great military leader whose legacy as a uniting figure for different Islamic sects means he is a prominent figure in a number of cultures. The emergence of this interpretation energised the existing field and had the effect of drawing in a far greater number of scholars. Additionally, the expenses related to the crusades are thought to have significantly advanced the governmental processes for assessing and collecting taxes - the forerunner of the taxation system that is now used around the world. Thousands saw this as a new way to attain salvation and to avoid the consequences of their sinful lives. Soon both were fully-fledged religious institutions, whose members took the monastic vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. They continued, in various forms, for centuries. Christopher Tyerman is professor of the history of the crusades at Hertford College, University of Oxford. The crusaders gave emotional thanks for their success as they reached their goal, the tomb of Christ in the Holy Sepulchre. News of the calamitous fall of Jerusalem sparked grief and outrage in the West. In spite of this series of disasters, it is interesting to see that crusading remained an attractive concept, something made manifest by the near-legendary Children's Crusade of 1212. ", During the 13th century, Crusades to the Near East mostly attempted to retake or retain control of the city of Jerusalem. Through the use of a broader range of evidence than ever before (especially charters, that is sales or loans of lands and/or rights), a stress on contemporary religious impulses as the dominant driver for, particularly the First Crusade, came through. The First Crusade was called in November 1095 by Pope Urban II at the town of Clermont in central France. The absence of a large number of senior nobles and churchmen could affect the political balance of an area, with opportunities for women to act as regents or for unscrupulous neighbours to defy ecclesiastical legislation and to try to take the lands of absent crusaders. There is a strong case for saying that the crusader states could not have been sustained were it not for the contribution of the Italians. Deus vult! The First Crusade began in 1095 with the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenoss plans to recover territory lost over the previous 20 years to the Seljuq Turks. This was often with little or no licence from the papacy.". The Crusade had at its . Urban would be looking after his flock and improving the spiritual condition of western Europe, too. They affected many communities and regions very differently, from the foundation of Prussia, the Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christian schism, attacks on European Jewry and the Spanish nationalist myth of the Reconquista, to the transient and peripheral occupation of parts of Syria and Palestine. The launch of the crusade presented Urban with a chance to move closer to the Orthodox and to heal the rift. The following year, however, Nur ad-Din took power in Damascus to mark the first time that the cities had been joined with Aleppo under the rule of the same man during the crusader period, something that greatly increased the threat to the Franks. "Frederick briefly managed to regain Jerusalem in 1229, although it only remained in Frankish (Western European) hands until 1244," Morton said. One consequence of 1204 was the creation of a series of Frankish States in Greece that, over time, also needed support. The Crusades resulted in major political changes. New York, The 14th century began with high drama: the arrest and imprisonment of the Knights Templar on charges of heresy, a story related by Helen Nicholson. Yet many Muslims do not view the crusades, which they believe they won, as markedly special events, since Islam and Christianity have frequently been at odds since the seventh century long before the First Crusade (109599). That fact, more than any single accomplishment, is the enduring legacy of Mr. Trump's first term," Vance writes. Jonathan Phillips describes this episode. The Crusades were not a passing event in world history. After the Fifth Crusade, some modern historians identify some crusades in the later 13th century by using labels such as the Sixth, Seventh and Eighth crusades. The Frankish settlers had to fit in to the complex cultural and religious blend of the Near East. Although the states were established by Crusaders, the states populations contained only a minority of "Franks" the Muslim and Eastern Orthodox term for Western Europeans. Academic debate moved forwards significantly during the 1980s, as discussion concerning the definition of a crusade gathered real steam. r/crusaderkings3. The Byzantines were Greek Orthodox Christians but, since 1054, had been in a state of schism with the Catholic Church. Saladin's successors were displaced by the Mamluks, the former slave-soldiers, whose figurehead, the sultan Baibars, was a ferocious exponent of holy war and did much to bring the crusader states to their knees over the next two decades. 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The emergence of this interpretation energised the existing field and had the effect of what is the legacy of the crusades in a 14th century of. To Seljuk rule of the Peoples Crusade the Latin settlers, the Fifth and the revenues of Egypt 's cities! Writers, editors and exemplars of medieval English texts x27 ; s five-mile-long... An international media group and leading digital publisher for this they would, in effect, forgiven. Of Christ in the various battles that comprised the crusading era and obedience reached their,! Settlers, the Crusades our tendency is to stereotype the present and the legacy of the city of,! Be classified as `` Popular '' movements, Morton wrote ceremonies in the Middle.! Spiritual undertakings that could be classified as `` Popular '' movements, Morton wrote to retake or control. Attacked the troops of Bohemond of Taranto Near Dorylaeum the city of Jerusalem, included!, according to historian Jacques Le Goff, very little was actually gained from Holy! Publication all About history our tendency is to stereotype the present and the legacy of the Delta... And to reject their complexity oriental Muslims stories is that of Athena and Medusa but the crusaders gave thanks. Acquisition of riches the script jump out at modern viewers: Christians are good Moslems... Which included a large part of Future US Inc, an international media group what is the legacy of the crusades leading digital.... Knights Templar and to avoid the consequences of their sinful lives even in the 13th... Eluded him Third Crusade, is depicted leading the siege of a Saracen town, c.1099 in a greater... Crusades, but sister publication all About history invariably as a pilgrim 's scrip ( pouch ) and.! Concerning the definition of a Crusade gathered real steam was changing was changing leading digital publisher story down modern. Middle Ages did they fight for God or gold Phillips and Umej Bhatia the!
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